Collaborative Learning

I recently came across a very interesting project that linked students learning foreign languages with each other for a guided collaborative learning of each other's culture and language. Cultura Project began in 1997 to link students of French at M.I.T. with students of English at Institut National des Télécommunications in Evry, France. The concept for the program is fairly simple: The students in the USA and the students in France completed similar surveys and then compared results. In this case, the format for these comparisons was bi-lingual, but it was the differences in language use and context in the two languages that seemed to draw the students in.  Does "liberté" in France equal "freedom" in the USA? While this would be a usual translation equivalent, the students in the program discovered some important differences. Similarly they found out why "individualisme" is a negative trait associated with selfishness in France, while "individualism" in the USA is a very highly regarded quality. But it wasn't just about individual word translations, or even about translation itself, but rather about the way language is so tightly connected to the culture in which it is used and how students can be prompted to ask each other about the context and cultural differences that are demonstrated in the different connotations found in the always inadequate translations.

One of the French students, for instance, asked the Americans why they talked so  much about nuclear families. Why do we? Merriam Webster Dictionary dates this usage to 1947, so whoever coined the term was familiar with nuclear bombs. Back then atomic terminology must have been everywhere in the USA. I am reminded also of the old clay and toothpick models of atoms that we made in grade school as part of our science class, with the nucleus at the center. Is that the image? The central part of the family, those different-colored clay bits mashed together, rather than those toothpick-extended parts that include our relatives? Probably none of this happened quite this way in France, but this raises another interesting point about the differences in family structures historically and today.

There are many other fascinating examples in the Cultura Project article and you can follow links to see some of the full examples of the online forums of students. Learning another language does demand that you also learn another cultural perspective. The AFS founders seemed to intuitively recognize the value of this and used the high school exchange program as their means to bring about this new understanding. I think online tools can also help make this happen, and will probably make people want to meet each other in person to build that relationship and enhance that understanding, because face-to-face relationships always do offer much more.

Bettina Hansel

Director of Intercultural Education and Research

AFS International

How should teachers work with exchange students who are learning the language?

With thousands of AFS students newly arrived in their host country, one of the first challenges they face is the language. In the first days they will resort to some non-language communication: pointing to things, drawing pictures, using gestures and facial expressions. You may have seen a small booklet created for the traveler who doesn't speak the language. Point It by Dieter Graf is one example that has become fairly popular. Yet this approach can only go so far. After one's basic needs for food, toilet, shower and sleep are satisfied, it becomes difficult to rely solely on non-verbal communication.

Teachers hosting exchange students in their classroom may feel that it is important to correct the students' language errors to help them learn to speak and write correctly. But this may not always be helpful. Here are some guidelines:

1. Is the student generally confident and self-assured? Confident students are more likely to be able to benefit from some correction when they make language mistakes, but learning a new language can be a source of anxiety for those contemplating traveling to or living in another country. They may worry too much about making mistakes. This may be especially true in school, where students often feel that they are constantly judged. (In a previous post I described my experience in school of the red marks on my papers, correcting my French.) Students who are already a bit nervous may not be helped if their errors are constantly corrected, especially while they are struggling to make themselves understood. It may be more important to hear and understand what they are trying to communicate without worrying about the grammatical mistakes.
2. Did the student make a mistake that may embarrass him? Sometimes in trying to use the language the students accent or choice of words may give his words an unwelcome nuance. In these cases is it important that the students are aware of the double meaning they may have created, particularly if it has already provoked laughter in the classroom. It is helpful to provide a way for the student to remember the correct use so that he can use it confidently the next time. Any little gimmick such as a string of common words that rhyme with the mispronounced word, or an image to remember that will guide the student to the correct usage can help. Consider helping the student privately as well rather than in front of other students.
3. Are you unable to understand what the student said? If you cannot comprehend the student's language, you will need some special patience. Accept some of the responsibility for the failure of the message. The student may be speaking the correct words but because of the unfamiliar "melody" she gives to these words, you may not recognize what she said because your ear is not attuned to that particular accent. Give the student time to try again. Perhaps the student can also write down what she said or use some non-verbal communication.

The more the student uses the language and is able to successfully communicate his or her message, the more confident he or she will become, and the more open to accepting correction in the desire to improve.

Written Language

Written language is generally quite different from the way the same language is spoken. Anyone who has struggled with English spelling, whether as a foreign language or as part of learning your own language, will immediately recognize that pronunciation may not always be a good guide for writing the words. Competitive "spelling bees" where children are lined up and given words to spell correctly, are so common in the USA that a few years ago a documentary featuring the children and families in a national spelling bee became quite popular, followed by a Broadway musical production on the same theme. 

Some weeks ago a colleague from Paraguay was commenting on his impression of how strange this musical must seem to Spanish speakers, whose language is very phonetic and spelling presents few problems for native speakers once they have learned the alphabet.

Recently from the UNESCO web site I found a booklet on "Why language matters" dealing with literacy. In it was this very interesting map of scripts and alphabets used around the world. (The map links to the booklet.) One of the issues with the global digitalization of language is the huge number and diversity of written scripts. I was reminded of the problems I had faced during my time as director of systems at AFS several years ago. At that time, creating a database that  could work with Japanese, Chinese, Russian, and Thai seemed impossible. Chinese characters are double-byte characters while the Thai script uses one and a half byte symbols compared with the single byte of the Roman alphabet. Even diacritical marks posed problems not that many years ago and still sometimes are mis-coded when sent through certain email systems or with old web browsers.

Exchange students immersed in their host culture are likely to advance quickly with the spoken language and might be able to read reasonably well, but to be able to write like a native writer takes considerably more practice. It is not just the spelling or the script that presents the problems, though these can be very challenging in some languages. Many students will try to translate the conventions of their home country's written language, which might either seem too simplistic or terrible convoluted or difficult to understand in the host country language. A good exercise for exchange students is to have a small, ungraded written assignment of a page or a paragraph every day. The teacher can judge the progress being made after a few weeks and, observing the patterns of errors being made, can gently guide the student to improve his or her writing.

Bettina Hansel

Director of Intercultural Education and Research
AFS International   

A big "Thank You" and welcome to my guest blogger, Leo Hitchcock from New Zealand, pictured here with a former AFS student that he had hosted. Leo is currently researching the assessment of intercultural competence. His reactions to the Intercultural Eyes blogs seem to call for a bigger space than the semi-hidden "comment" boxes. Here is Leo's first full posting.

                                                                                                                               Betsy Hansel

The significance of language, social networks, and food to study abroad sojourners

I read with interest Betsy’s language posts, and thought I’d share with you data from some readings I have recently completed along with some thoughts.

Language is central to human communications, therefore host language proficiency is assumed to be one of the most important determinants of successful cultural adaptation [1].  It is considered ‘cultural capital’, and is a source of status and power for study abroad students (sojourners) [2].  Sojourners who expected to speak the host language but had low language skills, interpreted unwillingness on the part of the hosts to speak in return as exclusion from the local culture! [1].  

Learning and speaking in another language can present challenges to a person’s sense of themselves, as this quote illustrates: 

In order to be a wit in a foreign language you have to go through the stage of being a half-wit – there is no other way. If the problem is not addressed explicitly, learners may be just aware of it as a constant resistance against opening their mouths! [3].

To learn a new language is to create a new identity, as it is the principle process by which identity formation takes place [1, 4].  Eva Hoffman, a Polish 13 year old who moved to live in Canada, and struggled with whether to write her diary in English or Polish remarks;

This language is beginning to invent another me.  However I discover something odd.  It seems that when I write (or for that matter, think) in English, I am unable to use the word ‘I’.  I do not go so far as the schizophrenic ‘she’, but am driven, as by a compulsion, to the double, the Siamese-twin ‘you’ [4].

One is drawn into the interactive nature of language and culture, going beyond mere structure and grammatical rules, and learning to unravel the inner meaning of the language that leads to refining and extending one’s knowledge of the culture.  The educational implication is an imperativeness to become a sensitive user of the other language, which includes recognition that a different language can lead to a different way of expressing or experiencing oneself [4].
But there is a paradox [1].  As sojourners become adapted they often find difficulties around language, with the result that the more culturally adjusted they become, the more they tend to feel excluded!  While high language skills provide for a deeper level of communication it does not automatically facilitate cultural adjustment.  Instead, it brings one into an ambiguous realm where neither host nor sojourner is clear of the extent of fluency, with hosts treating them either as unable to speak the language, or expecting native-like fluency, treating mistakes as deliberate and insulting. Neither attitude encourages cultural adjustment.  Deeper involvement with the host culture entails a different ‘cultural logic’ that has been recognised as the most challenging level within cross-cultural encounters, sometimes producing negative attitudes to the host culture (Culture Shock!) [5].  All sojourners that were researched encountered this at some stage, but those with higher language proficiency brought it on sooner and had higher expectations of being able to deal with it [1].

Recognition of intercultural competence, however, need not include a corresponding learning of a foreign language for those who do not have a second language component in their sojourn [6].  If a second language were a prerequisite to gaining intercultural competence, how would a sojourner ever achieve it if their sojourn was to a culture that speaks the same language, yet may be substantially different culturally (for example Spain/Spanish speaking Latin American countries; New Zealand and Australia/English speaking North America).  Notwithstanding the obvious significance of the adaptive demands of language as an important element of attaining intercultural competence, intercultural competence can certainly be attained without it.

Social networks play a major role in determining how a person interprets and responds to their new environment.  Three social network types have been identified: monocultural (your own culture), bicultural (the host culture), and multicultural (other foreigners in the host culture) [7].  Additionally, contact with home family and friends is another social network that places demands on the sojourner [1]. 

Movement from left to right across the networks represents adjustment away from the sojourner’s reliance on home, and increases the number and closeness of host culture ties.

Willingness to accept change in social relationships is essential for adjustment to another culture [8].  Relationships formed within the host culture social network results in the sojourner feeling part of the host culture.  Such relationships must develop beyond the superficial level, be of equal status, satisfy the needs of individuals, and be free from discrimination and negative attitudes [1].

And food has been shown to be of central importance in developing and maintaining social intercultural relationships [9].  Changing one’s food preferences is a conscious expression of changing identity.  Since food and its associated rituals embody a culture’s values [10], the sojourner’s reactions often indicate the extent they understand and appreciate their host culture’s core cultural values, and are an important part in participating in the culture.  Rejection of the local culture’s food seems like rejection of the local culture!

All of this is based on solid research of study abroad students, and I believe are very important notions to become aware of and become familiar with within the pre-departure preparation stage.

References:
[1] Pearson-Evans, Aileen; 2006, Recording the Journey: Dairies of Irish Students in Japan. In Michael Byram & Anwei Feng, (Eds), Living and Studying Abroad: Research and Practice.  Multilingual Matters Ltd,Clevedon, U.K.
[2] Kim, 1988, in [1]
[3] Harder, 1980: 269. In [4]
[4] Alred, Geof; 2003, Becoming a Better Stranger: A Therapeutic Perspective on Intercultural Education and/as Education. In Geof Alred, Mike Byram, & Mike Fleming (Eds), Intercultural Experience and Education.  Multilingual Matters Ltd,Clevedon, U.K.
[5]  Condon, 1974, in [1]
[6] Zarate, Genevìeve; 2003, The Recognition of Intercultural Competences: From individual to certification. In Geof Alred, Mike Byram, & Mike Fleming (Eds), Intercultural Experience and Education.  Multilingual Matters Ltd,Clevedon, U.K.
[7] Bochner et al, 1986, in [1]
[8] Anderson, 1994: Kim, 1988; in [1]
[9] Bourdieu, 1986; Fischler, 1988; in [1]
[10] Douglas, 1966: Levi-Strauss, 1968; in [1]

After our staff training in Istanbul last September, I found a new interest in Istanbul and Turkey. So recently my daughter gave me a copy of Orhan Pamuk's The Black Book, which I am now reading. I happened to turn to the "afterward" by translator Maureen Freely, and I want to thank her for giving me this insight into the Turkish language:

There is no verb to be in Turkish, nor is there a verb to have. It's an agglutinative language, which means that root nouns in even the simplest sentences can carry five or six suffixes. ("Apparently, they were inside their houses" is a single word.) There are many more tenses--you use one mode for events you have witnessed with your own eyes, for example, and another for anything you know by hearsay. There is a special syllable you can add to a verb to emphasize the active role someone played in whatever you are describing. The passive voice is as graceful as the active voice and rather more popular, with the result that a fine Turkish sentence may choose to obscure exactly who did what. (from the Vintage International Edition, 2006)

To learn Turkish, I certainly would need to adjust my thinking, and so I marvel at the work Ms. Freely has done with this book. After reading the "afterward" I needed to go back to different passages and reconsider how they might have been constructed in the original Turkish. And in doing this I connected more with the mindset of the main character and the character that he is pursuing and imitating.

So often we are dependent on interpreters, and I am grateful for those who are able to do this. We are now working with a small group of AFS staff from several countries, trying to learn together how to interpret our own cultures to each other so that our behaviors, values and beliefs make sense to each other. Tonight (in New York, but already tomorrow in Hong Kong, India and New Zealand) we will have our first conference call for this "seminar." It is an experiment I hope will succeed.

On a related note: in Issue 10 I talked about some research on language learning through study abroad. Both studies I cited can be found in Barbara F. Freed's book, Second Language Acquisition in a Study Abroad Context.(Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1995).

 Learning a Language and Learning a Culture

The research that Mitchell Hammer conducted with AFS students in 2002 included a very simple measure of language facility provided by the host family at the beginning of the experience and again after the students returned home at the end of their year. (For a summary of the results of this study, please go to the AFS Research and Education section of the AFS web site where versions of "Assessment of the Impact of Study Abroad Experience" can be found in English, Spanish or Portuguese.) This language rating by host families turned out to be an important one.

• We found that the host families who rated their students as more fluent also tended to rate them as having a better knowledge of the host culture.
• Students who stayed with the same host family all year tended to be given higher fluency ratings by those host families.
• Japanese students were assessed by their families as having the greatest improvement in language ability over the course of the year.
• Students who felt more comfortable and confident around other cultures also tended to have higher fluency ratings from their host families.

We discussed this last outcome extensively. Was it that the ease of language use made the students more comfortable and confident with people from other cultures, or did more confident students become more fluent simply because they were not afraid to use the language? Or, since he research also showed that this comfort and confidence around other cultures increased strongly (and anxiety declined) as a result of the AFS program, was it simply a case that both are related to participation in the program?

I tend to favor the interpretation that the sense of confidence these students have makes them unconcerned about making mistakes, and leads them to focus on building their communication skills through conversation. The host families are more likely to report that they are speaking with greater fluency because they have had deep and meaningful conversations with these students. No one is really assessing whether they have properly used the subjunctive case.

Linguists, of course, are much more interested in the appropriate use of the subjunctive and other forms specific to the language. Barbara Lafford's research among students learning Spanish shows that those who studied abroad were better than classroom learners in using many of the appropriate subtle conversational cues and patterns that are necessary for real communication with another person. She found that they had picked up more of the social context of their conversations and could "improvise" a conversation better than those who only studied in the classroom. They also stumbled less and sounded more like native speakers. Even those who had been beginner seemed to be able to gain much of this competence through study abroad experiences.

Vera Regan made an interesting study of how students in the classroom and those studying abroad differ in their use of the French form "ne....pas" and related forms of negation, as found in Piaf's "Pink Martini" song ("Je ne veux pas travailler") that for some reason seems to be played these days in New York restaurants, and can be found in multiple forms on You-Tube. As I learned as an exchange student in France, native French speakers will often drop the "ne" part of the two-part construction when speaking to each other, so that "je ne sais pas" can become something like "chai pas" with very casual speech, the way in English one might say "dunno" instead of "I don't know." Regan's research found that the study abroad students in France picked this up quite readily and were more likely to drop the "ne" than those who had studied the proper form in the classroom. On the other hand, when native speakers of French knew that someone was monitoring their speech, they were more likely to use the "correct" form, while the study abroad speakers were not so likely to self-correct to a more formal speech, even when they knew their speech was being monitored.

It seems that maybe we're more than half way there with the language learning. We know that our students become more confident and more fluent with the learning by experience and they clearly sound more fluent. However, as they imitate more the casual styles of speech that they use with their friends and host families, they may need some classroom instruction or maybe just some additional feedback to help them shift appropriately to more formal speech when this is expected.

I'm certainly going to be watching my own tendency to drop the "ne" and hope that I can self-correct when needed.

Bettina Hansel

Director of Intercultural Education and Research

AFS International